The New Testament Use of Jewish Pseudepigrapha Why the New Testament authors sometimes drew on ancient literary works written under false names Daniel M. GurtnerNew Testament authors naturally draw heavily on the Old Testament in their writings. They also show familiarity with other writings, such as the Greek poet Aratus of Soli, whose Phaenomena from the third century BC is quoted by Paul in Acts 17:28. Paul was also able to converse with the Epicureans and Stoics of Athens and was likely familiar with writings from those philosophies as well (Acts 17:18). The New Testament writers also drew on works known as the “pseudepigrapha.” These are writings that are often attributed to ancient figures, typically from the Old Testament, but not actually written by them. These were likely known by the New Testament authors, but their use in the New Testament is both sparse and debated. While one may find numerous points of parallel ideas, perhaps indicative of a shared Palestinian Jewish contexts, there are few quotations or clear allusions. Here we will overview the most prominent ones. Pseudepigrapha in the Book of Jude The clearest use of the Jewish Pseudepigrapha by New Testament writers is found in Jude, a book widely recognized for its familiarity with the literature of Palestinian Judaism and the only book of the NT to quote explicitly from the pseudepigrapha (vv. 14–15). But Jude also alludes to several passages in his brief letter. For example, Jude 5–7 warns of “angels who did not keep their own domain but abandoned their proper abode” (v. 6a) which God has “kept in eternal bonds under darkness for the judgment of the great day” (v. 6b). For a thorough introduction to the Jewish Pseudepigrapha, see Dr. Gurtner’s recent book. This reflects a tradition which speaks of the descent of the “sons of God” (Gen. 6:1–4), but more immediately refers to a notion outside the Bible that describes angels transgressing their proper boundaries. This is found in one of the oldest writings of the pseudepigrapha, the Book of Watchers (1 Enoch 1–36), where God commands the angel Raphael to bind up for judgment one of the rebellious fallen angels, called Watchers, known as Azazʾel: … the Lord said to Raphael, “Bind Azazʾel hand and foot (and) throw him into the darkness!” And he made a hole in the desert which was in Dudaʾel and cast him there; he threw on top of him rugged and sharp rocks. And he covered his face in order that he may not see light; and in order that he may be sent into the fire on the great day of judgment.” (1 Enoch 10:4–6) In 1 Enoch Azazʾel’s fate will be shared by the other fallen Watchers held in a prison until final judgment (1 Enoch 18:14–16; 21:3, 10). These fallen angels, or Watchers, were, according to 1 Enoch, responsible for introducing evil into the world (1 Enoch 6–19). Nothing is said in 1 Enoch about the fall of Adam (Rom. 5). And Raphael’s role, according to the passage to which Jude alludes, is to bind up one of the leading rebels and hold him for God’s judgment. In Jude the strange story serves as an illustration: if these angelic figures will not escape God’s judgment, neither will the false teachers who have crept into the church (Jude 4). No doubt in Jude’s context the purpose is to encourage the readers that the real threat their enemies pose to the church will not go unpunished by God’s righteous judgment (v. 10). Shortly thereafter, Jude lashes out at his opponents for reviling “angelic majesties” (Jude 8 NASB) or, more properly “slander the glorious ones,” which are surely angels. Regardless of what kind of slander he has in mind, Jude cites a curious tradition regarding “Michael the archangel” (Jude 9) who did not dare revile even the devil but said “The Lord rebuke you” (Jude 9 NASB). This means that even Michael did not have the audacity to rebuke the devil, like the false teachers slander angels. Instead, Michael leaves such judgment in the (proper) hands of God. Though we may have no idea where this notion of Michael conversing with the devil comes from, apparently it was sufficiently familiar to Jude’s reader that Jude could use it as an illustration. Related Illustration by Josh Koch. Image of Enoch from the 1728 Figures de la Bible The Pseudepigrapha of Second Temple JudaismA consideration of Jewish Pseudepigrapha raises the question whether the New Testament contains books written under a false name. Daniel M. Gurtner This account most likely derives from the Testament of Moses, which purports to be a farewell exhortation given to Joshua by Moses before the transfer of leadership of the people of Israel. The ending of the book has been lost, and it is generally assumed that Moses’ death was narrated at some point in the earlier text. Nevertheless, the tradition was sufficiently familiar to Jude’s readers to illustrate the point about the audacity of the false teachers. Jude also makes an explicit quotation from 1 Enoch, again in a context in which he continues his denunciation of the false teachers, even claiming that Enoch prophesied about them: Enoch, the seventh from Adam, prophesied about them: “See, the Lord is coming with thousands upon thousands of his holy onesto judge everyone, and to convict all of them of all the ungodly acts they have committed in their ungodliness, and of all the defiant words ungodly sinners have spoken against him.” (Jude 1:14–15 NIV) The quotation is taken from 1 Enoch 1:9, which is the very beginning of the Book of Watchers (1 Enoch 1–36). In this book, Enoch, who appears only briefly in the pages of Genesis (Gen. 5:19–24), receives a vision from God (1 Enoch 1:1–2). This vision announces that God will bring judgment upon the wicked, whose fate is stated in verse 9, that quoted by Jude: Behold, he comes with the myriads of his holy ones, to execute judgment on all, and to destroy all the wicked, and to convict all flesh for all the wicked deeds that they have done, and the proud and hard words that wicked sinners spoke against him (1 Enoch 1:9) Jude seems to make a few adjustments to the 1 Enoch text, but there is no doubt he is quoting from 1 Enoch 1:9. Again the context of Jude makes clear that he sees the illustration from 1 Enoch as pertinent for his understanding of God’s judgment that will befall the false teachers in his own setting. It is worth observing that Jude regards Enoch’s utterance as prophecy (Jude 14). But this does not imply Jude regarded 1 Enoch as having canonical status. Prophecy in apocalyptic literature in Second Temple Judaism was often a key component to the revelatory experience of the visionary as divine mediators, without necessarily implying that the document in which it was found had authority for its respective communities. Jude is among works spoken against by some precisely because of its use of 1 Enoch. Jude presumes his readers are sufficiently familiar with the traditions referenced to make sense to his readers. Perhaps a more complicated matter pertains to the way in which Jude was received in the early church because of its use of these sources. Jude is among works spoken against by some precisely because of its use of 1 Enoch (Jerome, Lives of Illustrious Men 4) yet, according to Jerome (AD 347–c. 420) is reckoned among the Holy Scriptures (Lives of Illustrious Men 4). Clement of Alexandria (c. AD 200) in his Stromata (again according to Eusebius, HE VI.xiii.6) Jude is among the “disputed Scriptures.” Tertullian believed that Jude regarded 1 Enoch so highly that the church should afford it canonical authority (On the Dress of Women 3.3). Though Jude was excluded from the Syriac New Testament (Peshitta) until the sixth century, it was listed as Scripture in the Muratorian canon and Athanasius’s Festal Letter of AD 367. The general consensus, then, is that Jude was widely, though not universally, regarded as authoritative scripture and that its usage of pseudepigraphical sources was among the points of contention. Pseudepigrapha and the Book of James The book of James makes use of a tradition regarding the biblical Job, but it is debated whether he depends upon the psuedepigraphical source or whether he shares close points of correspondence by virtue of their shared milieu. James, in writing about the patient endurance exhibited by Job, says: As you know, we count as blessed those who have persevered. You have heard of Job’s perseverance (hypomonēn) and have seen what the Lord finally brought about. The Lord is full of compassion and mercy (James 5:11 NIV) There are points of similarity between this illustration of Job and the account found in the Testament of Job, which is itself an embellishment of the biblical book of Job. As a Testament, it presents Job imparting wisdom to his progeny prior to his impending death with particular emphasis on the virtue of patient endurance. Most of the work (T. Job 1:4–45:4) is Job’s first-person account of the cause and consequences of his hardships and concludes with Job’s death, the ascent of his soul, and burial (T. Job 51–53). What’s particularly interesting is how Job’s legendary endurance and patience are emphasized throughout. The key verse which is sometimes identified as a source for James is T. Job 1:5: “I am your father Job, fully engaged in endurance (hypomonē). But you are a chosen and honored race from the seed of Jacob, the father of your mother.” Most scholars attribute the Testament of Job to an Egyptian Jew writing at the turn of the era primarily based on its affinities with other Jewish writings from that date. Regardless, it seems evident that James’s distinctive image of Job matches the portrait in the Testament of Job as a model for patient endurance (T. Job 1:3; 4:6; 5:1; 26:6; 27:10) and presumes his knowledge of extracanonical traditions, whether he is referencing a literary form of the Testament of Job as we know it or not. Conclusion Our overview of these two New Testament texts that mention traditions found in the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha shows that at least some authors were familiar with these writings. For their own purposes, these authors made use of them with presumably some notion that they were in some way familiar to their respective readers. A host of other discussions on lesser points could be proposed. That New Testament authors are familiar with and at times make use of these traditions need mean no more than they were useful for their purpose. That New Testament authors are familiar with and at times make use of these traditions need mean no more than they were useful for their purposes, and readers of the New Testament are quite familiar with these authors’ tendency to do so. Jesus himself makes use of nature, agricultural experiences, and home life in His parables. Paul is even known to use an inscription found on an altar that reads, “To an unknown god” (Acts 17:23) as a starting point for his proclamation of the gospel in Athens. In this vein, New Testament authors’ use of pseudepigraphical material need not mean they regarded it as authoritative or as scripture. Rather, it reflects authors who were attuned to the literary contexts in which they and their readers functioned. 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The Pseudepigrapha of Second Temple Judaism A consideration of Jewish Pseudepigrapha raises the question whether the New Testament contains books written under a false name. Daniel M. GurtnerAt the time the New Testament was written, there were quite a few writings from ancient Judaism in circulation. The most obscure of these is the so-called “Old Testament Pseudepigrapha.” The designation “pseudepigrapha” is unfortunate, since it misrepresents what many of these texts are about in several ways. The English word “pseudepigrapha” (sing. pseudepigraphon) is the transliteration of a Greek term that refers to “falsely attributed writing,” from pseudēs (“false”) and epigraphē (“inscription, superscription”). It is often used to designate works falsely related to or even attributed to prominent individuals in the Old Testament. But these points require some clarification. First, the idea of falsehood suggests some level of deceit and thus falsely attributes negative connotations to the very nature of the writing. Second, some works within this category are not identified with a particular individual at all, including with respect to authorship. Third, putting all these writings into a single category may suggest some kind of uniformity between them. Yet unlike other writings, the texts typically identified as pseudepigrapha, even those originating from the Second Temple Period, are not attested as collections in single manuscripts. Also, nearly all the documents in question are preserved exclusively in Christian traditions. In reality, the expression “Old Testament Pseudepigrapha,” then, is a “bucket” category into which documents are often lumped when they do not clearly fit into any others. To begin to understand these documents, then, we must give careful attention to the practice of pseudepigraphy in antiquity in order to gain an appreciation for the cultural phenomena at play. Understanding the Nature of Pseudepigraphy Dr. Gurtner’s recent book introduces the Jewish Pseudepigrapha Why would someone write in the name of someone else? This seems strange to us, since we are used to journalistic-type writing on the one hand, or Stephen King novels where the author has become a cultural celebrity on the other. Yet recall that Mary Ann Evans wrote as George Eliot, and even Benjamin Franklin in his youth wrote as “Silence Dogood,” among several other pen names he used throughout his career. Authors ancient and modern may have a variety of reasons for using such pen names. In antiquity, some libraries, such as the famous Alexandrian library, collected works of well-known writers. Therefore one may write in another’s name to gain a place among well-known writers. This could be done to get a hearing for one’s own views or draw the circumstances of the ancient figure into the context of the real author’s setting. So, for example, the author of 4 Ezra draws from the biblical Ezra. The book of Ezra is set in a context of the return from exile and reconstitution of the temple. Fourth Ezra, drawing from Ezra’s narrative setting, is set after the destruction of the Herodian temple in AD 70, and the similarities between the biblical setting and that of the later author caused the latter to utilize the former in his message. In some instances, the genre of a work may influence the figure to whom it is attributed. Wisdom material would be attributed to Solomon, hymnic writings to David, and legal matters to Moses, etc. In the ancient world, pseudonymity received a mixed reception. In some circles writing in one’s own name may have been perceived as unethical, whereas writing in the name of another is a more modest way of expressing one’s indebtedness to a tradition. The ancient figure serves to lend credence to the views espoused in his name. Among Jews, works written in the name of an esteemed figure are intended to elaborate upon him in some sense—his life, his significance, or some particular about his Jewish piety—and thus attributed to him. In this rubric, texts expand upon traditions associated with their seminal figure. Thus the ancient figure serves to lend credence to the views espoused in his name. The Major Types of Pseudepigraphy There is little agreement about which books are included among the so-called Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, even among published collections. Almost all of them were preserved and hand-copied by Christians, while others are written by Christians in the first place. Here we can limit our overview to a selection of documents that are (1) widely agreed to be Jewish in origin and are still Jewish in their present form, and (2) date from around the time of the New Testament, or at least prior to the end of the Second Jewish Revolt against Rome (AD 135). Apocalypse The most widely attested genre among the Pseudepigrapha is the apocalypse, which typically depicts the reception of some divine disclosure to a person—typically a famous figure from the Hebrew Bible—alongside its interpretation by a heavenly figure such as an angel. First Enoch is a collection of five originally independent writings dating from the fourth century BC to the first century AD As a whole, 1 Enoch represents the oldest of three works associated with the biblical Enoch, the seventh from Adam (Gen. 5:21–24). Second Baruch is an ancient apocalypse featuring Baruch, the scribe of Jeremiah, who is called from his role as companion and secretary to the prophet (Jer. 36:4–10, 26, 32) and placed as a nobleman (Jer. 21:12; 43:2–3; 51:59). In 2 Baruch he becomes recipient of a prophetic revelation, perhaps even successor to Jeremiah, who is an apocalyptic visionary and crucial leader of God’s people in a time of crisis. Like 4 Ezra, this work is written after the destruction of the temple in AD 70 and trying to process this inexplicable tragedy that befell the people of God. Testaments Testaments are drawn from accounts in which a revered figure, typically a father or leader, delivers a discourse in anticipation of his imminent death to his sons, his people, or his successor, similar to what one encounters in the Old Testament with Jacob (Gen. 49) and Moses (Deut. 33–34). The Testament of Moses is a farewell exhortation given to Joshua by Moses before the transfer of leadership of the people of Israel. The ending of the book has been lost, and it is generally assumed that Moses’ death was narrated at some point in the earlier text. The narrative is almost entirely attributed to Moses in the form of a prediction about Israel from their entrance into Canaan until the end of days. The Testament of Job is an embellishment of the biblical book of Job in which Job imparts wisdom to his progeny prior to his impending death with particular emphasis on the virtue of patient endurance. The Aramaic Levi Document is a testament-like text recounting the life story of the patriarch Levi. But the work gives particular attention to Levi’s establishment of the Levitical priesthood, long before the time of Aaron, and sacred laws for sacrifices that he received from his grandfather, Isaac. Related A 17th century icon of Enoch with Elijah in the Historic Museum in Sanok, Poland. Wikipedia The New Testament Use of Jewish PseudepigraphaWhy the New Testament authors sometimes drew on ancient literary works written under false names Daniel M. Gurtner Narratives A variety of narrative texts relating in various ways to the Hebrew Bible were written and preserved among Jews of the Second Temple period. For example, the Book of Jubilees is largely a retelling of the biblical books of Genesis and early parts of Exodus (chs. 1–24). It claims to have been dictated to Moses on Mount Sinai by the “angel of the Presence” (Jub. 1:29; 2:1) alongside the Law at his first ascent up the mountain (Exod. 24:12–18). The Letter of Aristeas is widely regarded as a fictitious accounting for the origins of the Greek translation of the Pentateuch from the Hebrew. Joseph and Aseneth is a fanciful tale of the patriarch Joseph and his Egyptian wife Aseneth, daughter of Potiphera, Priest of On (Gen. 41:45). It describes the repentance and conversion of the gentile Aseneth and her marriage to the pious Jew Joseph. Psalms The various expressions of religious piety among Second Temple Jews occasioned a large assortment of psalms, hymns, and prayers. Among the psalms preserved partially in Hebrew in in the Dead Sea Scrolls (11QPsa; 11Q5), there are six Psalms from the Second Temple period beyond the 150 collected in the Hebrew Bible (Psalms 151–155). A collection of eighteen pseudonymous hymns or poems, attributed to Solomon, are known as the Psalms of Solomon. In general, these convey a Jewish community’s response to persecution and a foreign invasion, likely in reference to the Romans in the first century BC. Pseudepigraphy and the New Testament When considering the pseudepigrapha and the question of canon many scholars think that early Christians adopted the mode of pseudepigraphy from Judaism. And so it is sometimes rather easily claimed, for example, that Paul did not really write the Pastoral Epistles (1–2 Timothy, Titus), but rather it was written by someone else who attributed it to Paul. In other words, they are pseudepigraphical. Get new articles and updates in your inbox. Leave this field empty if you're human: Yet a closer look raises serious objections: most importantly, one can readily recognize that in the pseudepigrapha described above there is little interest in the identity of the “real” author. The importance lies in the idea of the persona utilized by the author in the figure evoked from the Old Testament, and it seems that the identity of the actual authors and/or communities responsible for these documents are almost entirely lost to history. Yet with early Christians, authorship was exceedingly important; the authority of teachings and instructions given to Christian communities rested within the apostolic office. Already during the time of Paul there were those claiming to represent Paul in some sense (e.g., 2 Thess. 2:2). But Paul roundly rejects this (2 Thess. 2:3). Moreover, it is widely regarded that the early church beyond the New Testament likewise recognized the importance of actual authorship and its apostolic affinity, and so routinely rejected the authority of texts shown to be pseudonymous. If Christian communities rejected the practice of pseudepigraphy for its authoritative texts, it remains the case that the Jewish writings surveyed here are nevertheless helpful for understand the New Testament.