Suffer Not a Witch to Live?

The portrayal of witches in movies and TV often conjures up images of medieval settings, seen in comedies like Monty Python and the Holy Grail, fantasy series like Harry Potter and the Chronicles of Narnia, or more serious movies like In the Name of the Rose and Black Death.

These depictions usually show women in black robes riding broomsticks, linking witches to a world of swords and bow-and-arrow warfare, often viewed as remnants of the inaccurately labeled “dark ages.” However, witch-hunting as we understand it was a far more modern phenomenon than many realize, and this is reflected even in English Bible translation.

The rise in witch-hunting

Contrary to the medieval image, the most intense period of witch-hunting coincided with the rise of the early modern world, particularly the 15th and 17th centuries, which witnessed the most intense witch-hunting in history. An estimated 100,000 individuals in Europe and colonial America were prosecuted for witchcraft between 1400 and 1775, with around 50,000 facing execution. Historians debate the various and overlapping sources contributing to the rapid increase in witch-hunting, pointing to factors such as the Catholic and Protestant Reformations, changes in European economic and social life, new ‘modern’ criminal procedures, and the growth of nation-state power. Alongside these factors, biblical exegesis and, with it, Bible translation played a crucial role in both supporting and condemning witch-hunting.

Witches in exegesis and translation

Biblical exegesis significantly influenced the perception and prosecution of witchcraft during the Reformation. One of the key biblical passages often cited in witch trials was Exodus 22:18, which in both Tyndale and the King James Bible reads, “Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live.” In this verse, taken from the Hebrew Bible, the key term “witch” was translated in the Septuagint as pharmakos (φάρμακος), a Greek word that can refer to poisoners or those who practice nefarious arts with drugs, poisons, and medications. The Vulgate, a Latin translation made by Jerome in the fourth century, also reinforced this interpretation.

Likewise, the Bishops’ Bible (1602) includes a note stating: “The word in Hebrew signifieth a sorcerer or enchanter, or anyone who, through devilish means, harms livestock, crops, or people.” But in the Reformation period, translations varied, and exegetes debated the exact meaning of the term.

Johann Weyer, a Dutch physician and chief surgeon to the Duke of Cleves, argued that Exodus 22:18 had been mistranslated. In his work On the Tricks of Demons (De praestigiis daemonum), Weyer contended that the passage condemned poisoners, not witches. He concluded this after consulting rabbinical commentaries as well as Hebrew, Greek, and Latin editions of Exodus. This interpretation challenged the prevalent belief in witches’ supernatural powers and the necessity of their execution.

The Geneva Bible (1560) labeled the woman in 1 Samuel 28:3–25, the Witch of Endor, as “a woman that hath a familiar spirit” and “a witche.” Martin Luther’s German translation used the term Zauberin (sorceress) and later editions used Hexe (witch). These translations reinforced the belief in the existence and malevolence of witches. In contrast, earlier commentators, including Thomas Aquinas, often denied any supernatural power to the Witch of Endor, viewing her as a clever illusionist or a conduit for demonic activity, rather than possessing inherent powers.

The most notorious text associated with witch-hunting is the Malleus Maleficarum (1486), commonly known in English as The Hammer of the Witches. Authored by the German Dominican inquisitor Heinrich Kramer, with possible assistance from Jacob Sprenger, the Malleus argued that witches were real and dangerous agents of the devil. The text used biblical references, including the story of the Witch of Endor, to support its claims. It dismissed earlier interpretations that minimized the witch’s powers, asserting instead that witches acted at the devil’s behest, shedding innocent blood and revealing secret things.

Critics of witch-hunting

Despite the widespread fear and persecution, there were notable critics of witch-hunting from both Catholic and Protestant circles. These critics raised legal and moral objections to the methods used in witch trials, such as reliance on gossip, weak evidence, and the use of torture during interrogations. Johann Matthäus Meyfart, a Lutheran professor, warned of the potential for abuse in such trials, suggesting that prosecuting the innocent could endanger the salvation of those involved. He urged Christians to trust in Christ’s judgment at the Second Coming rather than relying solely on the legal system.

The English Puritan Reverend John Gaule criticized the infamous witch-hunter Matthew Hopkins, decrying the ungodly scenes of torture inflicted by Hopkins and his associates. German Jesuit Friedrich Spee von Langenfeld, who witnessed several witch-hunts, condemned the violence against innocent victims, noting that many were forced to confess under torture. Spee’s stance was supported by Jesuits Adam Tanner and Paul Laymann, who also denounced witch-hunting in their works on moral theology. Laymann, citing Christ’s teachings in the Parable of the Wheat and the Tares (Matt. 13:24–43), argued that it was better to let some guilty individuals go unpunished than to condemn the innocent unjustly.

Conclusion

While 19th-century historians viewed the decline of witch-hunting as evidence of diminishing religious influence, it is crucial to note that many critics of the trials were devout Christians. They acknowledged the reality of witches and the power of the devil but questioned the competence of governments and churches in conducting trials, the obvious bias in such proceedings, and the theological justifications behind them.

These criticisms were rooted in a Christian perspective that opposed the troubling beliefs and violent actions of their contemporaries, highlighting the complex interplay between biblical exegesis, translation issues, and the persecution of alleged witches. Given that witch trials are still happening in the world, we must recognize the high stakes involved in accurate and ethical Bible translation and interpretation in addressing and preventing such injustices.